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Lead-acid starter batteries

derived product Derived product (lead oxides, lead-acid batteries – articles containing lead) – not a CN chapter 78 lead product; plants and trade of the class are given separately, never combined with lead tonnes.

Product mass Article containing lead – lead-acid batteries: trade tonnes are the mass of the batteries (including cases and electrolyte), not their lead content; they are neither compared with nor added to lead tonnes.

Article containing lead (derived): lead-acid batteries for starting piston engines – working with liquid electrolyte (8507 10 20) and others, e.g. with electrolyte absorbed in separators (AGM) or gel (8507 10 80); lead and lead alloys form the grids, plates, connectors and active mass of the electrodes. Trade mass is the mass of batteries, not of lead – outside the lead articles trade total; the PRODCOM quantity is not a mass. Excluding spent batteries (scrap).

Metal
Lead
CN
8507 10 20 8507 10 80
PRODCOM
27.20.21.11 27.20.21.21

Key figures of the class, 2025

Extra-EU imports, 2025 270 thousand t EUR 744 million
Extra-EU exports, 2025 438 thousand t EUR 1.41 billion
Intra-EU arrivals, 2025 1.37 million t EUR 3.74 billion arrivals reported by EU countries; intra-EU dispatches: 1.59 million t
EU-27 production (PRODCOM), 2025 – EUR 4.95 billion no figure (a gap, not zero)
Plants and countries 3 plants countries: 1 producing plants according to primary documents (a lower bound)
Rank among lead classes, 2025 – class outside the metal trade total – no rank

from the data In 2025 EU-27 imports from outside the EU amounted to 270 thousand t (EUR 744 million) and exports to 438 thousand t (EUR 1.41 billion); the mass balance was +168 thousand t (export surplus). Intra-EU arrivals (reported by EU countries) – 1.37 million t. Main non-EU suppliers: South Korea (29.3%), China (21.8%) and Türkiye (14.6%). Main non-EU customers: United States (17.3%), United Kingdom (16.9%) and Türkiye (10.2%). Between 2015 and 2025 import mass changed by +35.8% and export mass by +27.9%. EU-27 sold production value according to PRODCOM (codes 27.20.21.11, 27.20.21.21) in 2025: EUR 4.95 billion; quantity – confidential or not available.

Data as of: · version 2.49 · verified at source up to · Dataset changes · Markdown · JSON

Products dataset: 2.2 (4 November 2026), class revision 1 · How to cite

EU-27 trade, 2005–2025

EU-27 imports and exports – with non-EU countries or within the EU (arrivals reported by EU countries and their dispatches to other EU countries) – in tonnes, euro or as unit value; the current year – monthly data (incomplete year).

TonnesEUREUR/t
extra-EUintra-EU
linear scalelog scale
Figure 1. EU-27 trade – Lead-acid starter batteries extra-EU · tonnes of product mass · linear scale
EU-27 trade – Lead-acid starter batteries – extra-EU, tonnes of product mass extra-EU trade (tonnes of product mass): imports 133 thousand t in 2005 and 270 thousand t in 2025; exports 220 thousand t in 2005 and 438 thousand t in 2025. 0 200k 400k 600k 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 2023 2026* extra-EU exports, 2005: 220 thousand textra-EU exports, 2006: 165 thousand textra-EU exports, 2007: 154 thousand textra-EU exports, 2008: 166 thousand textra-EU exports, 2009: 156 thousand textra-EU exports, 2010: 245 thousand textra-EU exports, 2011: 248 thousand textra-EU exports, 2012: 268 thousand textra-EU exports, 2013: 304 thousand textra-EU exports, 2014: 307 thousand textra-EU exports, 2015: 342 thousand textra-EU exports, 2016: 399 thousand textra-EU exports, 2017: 463 thousand textra-EU exports, 2018: 425 thousand textra-EU exports, 2019: 451 thousand textra-EU exports, 2020: 440 thousand textra-EU exports, 2021: 501 thousand textra-EU exports, 2022: 480 thousand textra-EU exports, 2023: 417 thousand textra-EU exports, 2024: 427 thousand textra-EU exports, 2025: 438 thousand textra-EU exports, 2026-01/2026-08: 262 thousand t extra-EU imports, 2005: 133 thousand textra-EU imports, 2006: 135 thousand textra-EU imports, 2007: 140 thousand textra-EU imports, 2008: 149 thousand textra-EU imports, 2009: 145 thousand textra-EU imports, 2010: 177 thousand textra-EU imports, 2011: 183 thousand textra-EU imports, 2012: 167 thousand textra-EU imports, 2013: 177 thousand textra-EU imports, 2014: 194 thousand textra-EU imports, 2015: 199 thousand textra-EU imports, 2016: 188 thousand textra-EU imports, 2017: 204 thousand textra-EU imports, 2018: 194 thousand textra-EU imports, 2019: 204 thousand textra-EU imports, 2020: 212 thousand textra-EU imports, 2021: 252 thousand textra-EU imports, 2022: 217 thousand textra-EU imports, 2023: 220 thousand textra-EU imports, 2024: 278 thousand textra-EU imports, 2025: 270 thousand textra-EU imports, 2026-01/2026-08: 175 thousand t

extra-EU imports extra-EU exports 2026* – data for 2026-01/2026-08 (incomplete year, hollow marker, no line)

Source: Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (class CN8 codes, EU-27); compiled by ai-waw.com – products dataset 2.2.
Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (annual data) – latest data: 2025; retrieved: 2026-11-04; next update: 2027-02 (period 2026)
Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (monthly data) – latest data: 2026-08 (intra-EU: 2026-07); retrieved: 2026-11-04; next update: 2026-11-13 (period 2026-09)

CSV (all years) JSON Metadata Link
Figure data (table)
EU-27 trade – Lead-acid starter batteries – extra-EU, tonnes of product mass
Yearextra-EU importsextra-EU exports Balance
2005 132,833220,441 87,608
2006 135,118164,614 29,496
2007 139,674153,557 13,883
2008 148,807165,760 16,953
2009 144,868156,067 11,200
2010 176,852244,814 67,962
2011 182,781248,191 65,410
2012 167,156267,875 100,718
2013 176,665304,157 127,492
2014 193,715307,106 113,391
2015 198,852342,299 143,447
2016 188,269399,196 210,928
2017 203,721462,551 258,830
2018 194,218425,365 231,147
2019 203,905450,973 247,067
2020 211,604440,110 228,505
2021 252,467500,828 248,361
2022 216,565479,919 263,354
2023 220,311416,619 196,307
2024 277,785427,483 149,698
2025 270,093437,859 167,766
2026 2026-01/2026-08 174,975261,725 86,750

tonnes of product mass. Balance = exports − imports.

PRODCOM production and apparent consumption

EU-27 sold production according to PRODCOM (codes 27.20.21.11, 27.20.21.21) and apparent consumption = production + extra-EU imports − extra-EU exports. Eurostat flags above the bars: E – estimate, R – rounded value; C – confidential value (no bar, not filled in).

Figure 2. EU-27 sold production and apparent consumption – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2005–2025 pcs
EU-27 sold production and apparent consumption – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2005–2025 EU-27 sold production (PRODCOM 27.20.21.11, 27.20.21.21): 92.6 million pcs in 2019, – in 2025. 0 25m 50m 75m 100m 125m 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 2023 2025 2005: gap– 2006: gap– 2007: gap– 2008: gap– 2009: gap– 2010: gap– 2011: gap– 2012: gap– 2013: gap– 2014: gap– 2015: gap– 2016: gap– 2017: gap– 2018: gap– 2019: 92.6 million pcs (Eurostat estimate (E); value rounded by Eurostat (R)) 2020: 81.7 million pcs (Eurostat estimate (E)) 2021: 103 million pcs (Eurostat estimate (E)) 2022: 91.5 million pcs (Eurostat estimate (E); value rounded by Eurostat (R)) 2023: 96.3 million pcs (Eurostat estimate (E); value rounded by Eurostat (R)) 2024: 101 million pcs (value rounded by Eurostat (R)) 2025: gap– E R E E E R E R R

EU-27 sold production (pcs) Eurostat estimate (E) E – Eurostat estimate, R – rounded, C – confidential (no bar), “–” – gap

Source: Eurostat, PRODCOM DS-059358 and DS-059367 (sold production), Comext DS-045409 (trade for apparent consumption); compiled by ai-waw.com – products dataset 2.2. Apparent consumption not computed: PRODCOM quantity in a non-mass unit (p/st) – not converted to tonnes.
Eurostat, PRODCOM DS-059358, DS-059367 – latest data: 2025; retrieved: 2026-11-04; next update: 2027-07 (period 2026)

CSV (all years) JSON Metadata Link
Figure data (table)
EU-27 sold production and apparent consumption – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2005–2025
YearSold production (pcs)Quantity flag Value (EUR)Apparent consumption (t)
2005 gap – –
2006 gap – –
2007 gap – –
2008 gap – –
2009 gap – –
2010 gap – –
2011 gap – –
2012 gap – –
2013 gap – –
2014 gap – –
2015 gap – –
2016 gap – –
2017 gap – –
2018 gap – –
2019 92,587,337 ER 4,275,124,306 –
2020 81,690,320 E 3,546,029,561 –
2021 103,285,158 E 4,551,887,046 –
2022 91,485,634 ER 4,658,518,203 –
2023 96,280,405 ER 5,064,112,509 –
2024 101,000,000 R 5,044,455,706 –
2025 gap 4,952,179,981 –

EU-27 countries, 2025

Mass balance of a country (exports − imports, all partners, including other EU countries) or the country share of exports or imports of the 27 EU countries. Plants of the class on a map – figure 7.

Mass balanceShare of exportsShare of imports
20252015
Figure 3. EU-27 countries in the trade of the class – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025 Mass balance
EU-27 countries in the trade of the class – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025 – Mass balance Mass balance of EU-27 countries in 2025: largest export surplus – Germany (+224 thousand t), largest import surplus – France (−198 thousand t). Sweden: balance −27.8 thousand t (exports 15.6 thousand t, imports 43.4 thousand t)Spain: balance +204 thousand t (exports 365 thousand t, imports 160 thousand t)Slovakia: balance −25.1 thousand t (exports 3,730 t, imports 28.9 thousand t)Slovenia: balance +40.0 thousand t (exports 71.9 thousand t, imports 31.9 thousand t)Romania: balance +4,890 t (exports 38.4 thousand t, imports 33.5 thousand t)Portugal: balance −31.2 thousand t (exports 2,402 t, imports 33.6 thousand t)Poland: balance +34.8 thousand t (exports 162 thousand t, imports 127 thousand t)Netherlands: balance +24.0 thousand t (exports 157 thousand t, imports 133 thousand t)Malta: balance −1,040 t (exports 1.2 t, imports 1,041 t)Luxembourg: balance −2,568 t (exports 421 t, imports 2,989 t)Lithuania: balance −7,761 t (exports 1,394 t, imports 9,155 t)Latvia: balance −3,621 t (exports 771 t, imports 4,393 t)Italy: balance −21.0 thousand t (exports 151 thousand t, imports 172 thousand t)Ireland: balance −7,758 t (exports 5,302 t, imports 13.1 thousand t)Hungary: balance −942 t (exports 20.3 thousand t, imports 21.3 thousand t)Greece: balance −28.8 thousand t (exports 1,399 t, imports 30.2 thousand t)Germany: balance +224 thousand t (exports 454 thousand t, imports 231 thousand t)France: balance −198 thousand t (exports 119 thousand t, imports 317 thousand t)Finland: balance −15.5 thousand t (exports 1,534 t, imports 17.0 thousand t)Estonia: balance −3,928 t (exports 98.3 t, imports 4,026 t)Denmark: balance −11.2 thousand t (exports 11.9 thousand t, imports 23.1 thousand t)Czechia: balance +184 thousand t (exports 274 thousand t, imports 90.3 thousand t)Cyprus: balance −4,493 t (exports 14.2 t, imports 4,508 t)Croatia: balance −13.8 thousand t (exports 4,241 t, imports 18.0 thousand t)Bulgaria: balance +34.5 thousand t (exports 48.9 thousand t, imports 14.4 thousand t)Belgium: balance −16.8 thousand t (exports 32.3 thousand t, imports 49.1 thousand t)Austria: balance +62.1 thousand t (exports 88.5 thousand t, imports 26.4 thousand t) Luxembourg: balance −2,568 t (exports 421 t, imports 2,989 t)LUMalta: balance −1,040 t (exports 1.2 t, imports 1,041 t)MTCyprus: balance −4,493 t (exports 14.2 t, imports 4,508 t)CY Mass balance, 2025 export surplus ≥ 89.5 thousand t export surplus 22.4 thousand t–89.5 thousand t export surplus < 22.4 thousand t balance ≈ 0 import surplus < 22.4 thousand t import surplus 22.4 thousand t–89.5 thousand t import surplus ≥ 89.5 thousand t non-EU countries

export surplus ≥ 89.5 thousand texport surplus 22.4 thousand t–89.5 thousand texport surplus < 22.4 thousand tbalance ≈ 0import surplus < 22.4 thousand timport surplus 22.4 thousand t–89.5 thousand timport surplus ≥ 89.5 thousand tnon-EU countries

Source: Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (class CN8 codes, EU-27); compiled by ai-waw.com – products dataset 2.2. Trade of EU-27 countries with all partners (WORLD); share – of the 27-country total. Balance thresholds – 10% and 40% of the largest absolute balance. The country map uses the declarations of the country itself (its exports and imports), the flow map – import declarations of the partners (country of consignment); differences are asymmetries of intra-EU trade statistics (transit, triangular trade, confidentiality). Base map: Natural Earth (public domain), Lambert conformal conic projection.
Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (annual data) – latest data: 2025; retrieved: 2026-11-04; next update: 2027-02 (period 2026)

CSV (all years) JSON Metadata Link
Figure data (table)
EU-27 countries in the trade of the class – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025
CountryImports (t)Exports (t) Balance (t)Share of EU-27 imports (%)Share of EU-27 exports (%) Intra-EU dispatches according to partner declarations (t)
Germany230,768454,484 +224 thousand t14.122.4 356,687
Spain160,325364,738 +204 thousand t9.818.0 224,290
Czechia90,288274,200 +184 thousand t5.513.5 220,670
Austria26,40088,493 +62.1 thousand t1.64.4 59,569
Slovenia31,85971,908 +40.0 thousand t1.93.5 47,181
Poland127,187161,943 +34.8 thousand t7.88.0 131,965
Bulgaria14,40748,915 +34.5 thousand t0.92.4 35,750
Netherlands132,831156,872 +24.0 thousand t8.17.7 31,453
Romania33,47338,363 +4,890 t2.01.9 21,105
Hungary21,27220,330 −942 t1.31.0 20,893
Malta1,0411 −1,040 t0.10.0 3
Luxembourg ‡2,989421 −2,568 t0.20.0 2,602
Latvia4,393771 −3,621 t0.30.0 577
Estonia4,02698 −3,928 t0.30.0 120
Cyprus4,50814 −4,493 t0.30.0 15
Ireland13,0605,302 −7,758 t0.80.3 58
Lithuania9,1551,394 −7,761 t0.60.1 1,214
Denmark23,05211,870 −11.2 thousand t1.40.6 3,639
Croatia18,0414,241 −13.8 thousand t1.10.2 1,484
Finland17,0491,534 −15.5 thousand t1.00.1 3,144
Belgium49,11232,331 −16.8 thousand t3.01.6 18,652
Italy172,304151,277 −21.0 thousand t10.57.5 95,911
Slovakia28,8673,730 −25.1 thousand t1.80.2 4,175
Sweden43,38015,609 −27.8 thousand t2.60.8 10,916
Greece30,1591,399 −28.8 thousand t1.80.1 825
Portugal33,5822,402 −31.2 thousand t2.10.1 3,175
France317,336119,124 −198 thousand t19.35.9 74,434

‡ dispatches in the import declarations of partners more than twice the own exports of the country (difference > 2 thousand t) – an asymmetry of intra-EU trade statistics

Intra-EU flows, 2025

Arcs run from the country of consignment to the country of destination (arrivals reported by an EU country by country of consignment); width proportional to the square root of mass.

20252015
Figure 4. Intra-EU flows – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025 129 of 512 flows shown (95.0% of mass)
Intra-EU flows – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025 Intra-EU trade in 2025: total 1.37 million t; largest flow – Spain → France (84.7 thousand t). 129 of 512 flows shown (95.0% of mass) Spain → France: 84.7 thousand t (EUR 211 million)Germany → Netherlands: 69.4 thousand t (EUR 105 million)Germany → France: 68.9 thousand t (EUR 175 million)Czechia → Germany: 58.0 thousand t (EUR 154 million)Germany → Czechia: 51.7 thousand t (EUR 149 million)Spain → Italy: 50.0 thousand t (EUR 121 million)Czechia → France: 49.4 thousand t (EUR 103 million)Germany → Spain: 44.6 thousand t (EUR 137 million)Czechia → Poland: 30.6 thousand t (EUR 75.8 million)Poland → Germany: 29.4 thousand t (EUR 78.1 million)Spain → Poland: 25.8 thousand t (EUR 65.8 million)Germany → Poland: 25.8 thousand t (EUR 84.5 million)Czechia → Spain: 25.6 thousand t (EUR 50.6 million)Czechia → Italy: 23.8 thousand t (EUR 58.3 million)Austria → Germany: 23.4 thousand t (EUR 67.1 million)Italy → France: 23.1 thousand t (EUR 56.9 million)France → Germany: 23.1 thousand t (EUR 61.3 million)Spain → Portugal: 21.8 thousand t (EUR 71.4 million)Spain → Germany: 20.4 thousand t (EUR 43.8 million)Slovenia → Spain: 17.0 thousand t (EUR 40.0 million)Poland → France: 16.6 thousand t (EUR 40.2 million)Italy → Spain: 16.0 thousand t (EUR 43.2 million)Germany → Italy: 15.8 thousand t (EUR 57.5 million)Netherlands → Germany: 15.3 thousand t (EUR 46.2 million)Germany → Denmark: 15.1 thousand t (EUR 39.6 million)Italy → Germany: 14.7 thousand t (EUR 44.4 million)France → Belgium: 13.6 thousand t (EUR 44.9 million)Poland → Sweden: 13.1 thousand t (EUR 37.1 million)France → Netherlands: 12.9 thousand t (EUR 35.5 million)Poland → Italy: 12.8 thousand t (EUR 30.5 million)Poland → Spain: 11.5 thousand t (EUR 28.6 million)France → Spain: 11.4 thousand t (EUR 34.4 million)Slovenia → Italy: 10.6 thousand t (EUR 23.6 million)Spain → Czechia: 10.5 thousand t (EUR 21.3 million)Germany → Belgium: 10.4 thousand t (EUR 41.3 million)Slovenia → France: 10.3 thousand t (EUR 24.8 million)Germany → Austria: 9,480 t (EUR 32.3 million)Italy → Poland: 9,009 t (EUR 23.6 million)Poland → Czechia: 8,727 t (EUR 25.8 million)Germany → Slovakia: 8,520 t (EUR 26.5 million)Austria → France: 8,496 t (EUR 22.3 million)Poland → Slovakia: 7,722 t (EUR 22.6 million)Germany → Romania: 7,643 t (EUR 23.7 million)Romania → Germany: 7,404 t (EUR 19.9 million)Bulgaria → Germany: 7,379 t (EUR 16.4 million)Germany → Sweden: 7,327 t (EUR 33.5 million)Bulgaria → Italy: 7,045 t (EUR 19.1 million)Hungary → Spain: 6,936 t (EUR 13.6 million)Czechia → Greece: 6,613 t (EUR 20.7 million)Austria → Czechia: 6,369 t (EUR 16.2 million)Poland → Belgium: 6,357 t (EUR 25.0 million)Italy → Sweden: 5,852 t (EUR 15.0 million)Poland → Netherlands: 5,780 t (EUR 6.60 million)Germany → Finland: 5,527 t (EUR 18.2 million)Czechia → Romania: 5,388 t (EUR 21.7 million)France → Italy: 5,178 t (EUR 24.8 million)Netherlands → Belgium: 5,108 t (EUR 23.3 million)Czechia → Hungary: 5,065 t (EUR 10.8 million)Austria → Poland: 4,521 t (EUR 13.1 million)Belgium → Netherlands: 4,518 t (EUR 13.6 million)Bulgaria → France: 4,495 t (EUR 9.70 million)Czechia → Slovakia: 4,477 t (EUR 13.4 million)Hungary → Romania: 4,300 t (EUR 10.3 million)Germany → Portugal: 4,285 t (EUR 11.4 million)Poland → Croatia: 4,225 t (EUR 9.97 million)Czechia → Croatia: 3,975 t (EUR 12.1 million)Italy → Slovakia: 3,936 t (EUR 8.64 million)Bulgaria → Romania: 3,676 t (EUR 8.91 million)Spain → Sweden: 3,652 t (EUR 8.65 million)Italy → Croatia: 3,497 t (EUR 10.5 million)Sweden → Finland: 3,435 t (EUR 10.7 million)Czechia → Austria: 3,430 t (EUR 12.2 million)Italy → Hungary: 3,429 t (EUR 10.1 million)Romania → Netherlands: 3,337 t (EUR 5.33 million)Belgium → Germany: 3,320 t (EUR 14.0 million)Slovenia → Germany: 3,211 t (EUR 8.22 million)Romania → France: 3,203 t (EUR 9.28 million)Austria → Spain: 2,992 t (EUR 4.83 million)Germany → Hungary: 2,976 t (EUR 19.8 million)Germany → Bulgaria: 2,972 t (EUR 10.4 million)Belgium → France: 2,949 t (EUR 15.3 million)Austria → Sweden: 2,865 t (EUR 7.11 million)Bulgaria → Netherlands: 2,707 t (EUR 4.27 million)Bulgaria → Poland: 2,668 t (EUR 5.94 million)Italy → Romania: 2,567 t (EUR 7.74 million)Poland → Denmark: 2,558 t (EUR 6.73 million)Italy → Czechia: 2,502 t (EUR 12.5 million)Italy → Greece: 2,447 t (EUR 8.03 million)Poland → Finland: 2,392 t (EUR 5.53 million)Portugal → Italy: 2,392 t (EUR 9.19 million)Sweden → Denmark: 2,350 t (EUR 7.73 million)Hungary → Slovakia: 2,245 t (EUR 4.13 million)Hungary → Poland: 2,218 t (EUR 4.40 million)Poland → Romania: 2,204 t (EUR 6.40 million)Slovenia → Austria: 2,046 t (EUR 2.71 million)Spain → Netherlands: 1,987 t (EUR 3.47 million)Netherlands → Italy: 1,943 t (EUR 5.85 million)Italy → Slovenia: 1,912 t (EUR 5.85 million)Sweden → Netherlands: 1,907 t (EUR 1.51 million)Poland → Bulgaria: 1,905 t (EUR 4.55 million)Luxembourg → Italy: 1,881 t (EUR 5.74 million)Germany → Croatia: 1,855 t (EUR 7.55 million)France → Portugal: 1,842 t (EUR 7.15 million)Romania → Italy: 1,830 t (EUR 4.40 million)Austria → Portugal: 1,801 t (EUR 5.93 million)Austria → Hungary: 1,796 t (EUR 6.17 million)Romania → Bulgaria: 1,761 t (EUR 5.91 million)Netherlands → France: 1,698 t (EUR 8.12 million)Poland → Lithuania: 1,682 t (EUR 5.04 million)Hungary → Czechia: 1,681 t (EUR 3.87 million)France → Czechia: 1,657 t (EUR 5.59 million)Hungary → Italy: 1,549 t (EUR 3.57 million)Belgium → Spain: 1,544 t (EUR 7.10 million)Slovakia → Hungary: 1,539 t (EUR 2.21 million)Slovakia → Estonia: 1,469 t (EUR 4.10 million)Austria → Romania: 1,446 t (EUR 4.24 million)Spain → Ireland: 1,444 t (EUR 4.97 million)Italy → Netherlands: 1,441 t (EUR 5.45 million)Austria → Slovakia: 1,426 t (EUR 3.82 million)Bulgaria → Greece: 1,330 t (EUR 3.30 million)Spain → Finland: 1,317 t (EUR 3.25 million)Italy → Ireland: 1,290 t (EUR 2.22 million)Czechia → Bulgaria: 1,283 t (EUR 4.50 million)Spain → Belgium: 1,166 t (EUR 3.23 million)Denmark → Sweden: 1,166 t (EUR 4.93 million)Netherlands → Poland: 1,155 t (EUR 4.55 million)Czechia → Latvia: 1,146 t (EUR 3.97 million)Belgium → Italy: 1,120 t (EUR 6.00 million)Netherlands → Hungary: 1,060 t (EUR 2.41 million) SpainESFranceFRGermanyDENetherlandsNLCzechiaCZItalyITPolandPLAustriaATPortugalPTSloveniaSIDenmarkDKBelgiumBESwedenSESlovakiaSKRomaniaROBulgariaBGHungaryHUGreeceGRFinlandFICroatiaHRLuxembourgLULithuaniaLTEstoniaEEIrelandIELatviaLV Arc: consignment → destination 129 of 512 flows shown (95.0% of mass) 50.0 thousand t 10.0 thousand t 2,000 t

Arc: consignment → destination50.0 thousand t10.0 thousand t2,000 t

Source: Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (class CN8 codes, EU-27); compiled by ai-waw.com – products dataset 2.2. Arrivals of EU countries by country of consignment (EU-27 partners); pairs sorted by mass, descending. Arrivals without a stated country of consignment (confidential): 263 t – not on the map. Arc width – proportional to the square root of mass (reference widths in the legend). The country map uses the declarations of the country itself (its exports and imports), the flow map – import declarations of the partners (country of consignment); differences are asymmetries of intra-EU trade statistics (transit, triangular trade, confidentiality). Base map: Natural Earth (public domain), Lambert conformal conic projection.
Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (annual data) – latest data: 2025; retrieved: 2026-11-04; next update: 2027-02 (period 2026)

CSV (all years) JSON Metadata Link
Figure data (table)
Intra-EU flows – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025
Flow (consignment → destination)Mass (t)Value (EUR)
Spain → France84,718211,137,893
Germany → Netherlands69,409105,171,718
Germany → France68,905175,445,327
Czechia → Germany58,014153,675,033
Germany → Czechia51,707148,991,661
Spain → Italy50,047121,008,901
Czechia → France49,359102,969,313
Germany → Spain44,562136,620,456
Czechia → Poland30,64275,772,255
Poland → Germany29,41678,137,657
Spain → Poland25,78065,774,766
Germany → Poland25,75384,477,215
Czechia → Spain25,56550,640,566
Czechia → Italy23,79658,264,214
Austria → Germany23,42967,146,599
Italy → France23,10156,935,657
France → Germany23,05261,269,685
Spain → Portugal21,79771,418,433
Spain → Germany20,43943,799,545
Slovenia → Spain17,01940,040,992
Poland → France16,64640,182,306
Italy → Spain16,02443,209,095
Germany → Italy15,78757,464,819
Netherlands → Germany15,27546,235,022
Germany → Denmark15,13739,629,574
Italy → Germany14,72344,355,712
France → Belgium13,61044,895,743
Poland → Sweden13,12437,072,498
France → Netherlands12,94135,504,009
Poland → Italy12,84230,472,238
Poland → Spain11,48728,563,944
France → Spain11,35234,425,542
Slovenia → Italy10,58223,643,367
Spain → Czechia10,52921,346,479
Germany → Belgium10,40541,282,101
Slovenia → France10,33424,827,448
Germany → Austria9,48032,347,621
Italy → Poland9,00923,570,698
Poland → Czechia8,72725,817,235
Germany → Slovakia8,52026,485,444
Austria → France8,49622,288,098
Poland → Slovakia7,72222,562,805
Germany → Romania7,64323,680,049
Romania → Germany7,40419,873,739
Bulgaria → Germany7,37916,374,247
Germany → Sweden7,32733,472,250
Bulgaria → Italy7,04519,084,962
Hungary → Spain6,93613,566,350
Czechia → Greece6,61320,681,561
Austria → Czechia6,36916,158,072
Poland → Belgium6,35724,971,257
Italy → Sweden5,85215,044,938
Poland → Netherlands5,7806,604,898
Germany → Finland5,52718,164,805
Czechia → Romania5,38821,685,309
France → Italy5,17824,781,242
Netherlands → Belgium5,10823,277,831
Czechia → Hungary5,06510,812,909
Austria → Poland4,52113,136,998
Belgium → Netherlands4,51813,586,321
Bulgaria → France4,4959,700,414
Czechia → Slovakia4,47713,376,944
Hungary → Romania4,30010,288,007
Germany → Portugal4,28511,448,595
Poland → Croatia4,2259,972,784
Czechia → Croatia3,97512,121,549
Italy → Slovakia3,9368,639,052
Bulgaria → Romania3,6768,909,368
Spain → Sweden3,6528,649,265
Italy → Croatia3,49710,470,403
Sweden → Finland3,43510,671,428
Czechia → Austria3,43012,185,926
Italy → Hungary3,42910,087,616
Romania → Netherlands3,3375,329,673
Belgium → Germany3,32013,975,270
Slovenia → Germany3,2118,217,681
Romania → France3,2039,275,758
Austria → Spain2,9924,826,830
Germany → Hungary2,97619,812,797
Germany → Bulgaria2,97210,373,915
Belgium → France2,94915,343,265
Austria → Sweden2,8657,110,043
Bulgaria → Netherlands2,7074,272,662
Bulgaria → Poland2,6685,936,912
Italy → Romania2,5677,737,735
Poland → Denmark2,5586,725,294
Italy → Czechia2,50212,463,633
Italy → Greece2,4478,029,772
Poland → Finland2,3925,529,249
Portugal → Italy2,3929,186,605
Sweden → Denmark2,3507,732,533
Hungary → Slovakia2,2454,133,666
Hungary → Poland2,2184,398,593
Poland → Romania2,2046,398,810
Slovenia → Austria2,0462,712,208
Spain → Netherlands1,9873,471,243
Netherlands → Italy1,9435,850,826
Italy → Slovenia1,9125,848,168
Sweden → Netherlands1,9071,508,312
Poland → Bulgaria1,9054,545,581
Luxembourg → Italy1,8815,743,178
Germany → Croatia1,8557,552,472
France → Portugal1,8427,152,643
Romania → Italy1,8304,401,217
Austria → Portugal1,8015,930,627
Austria → Hungary1,7966,171,773
Romania → Bulgaria1,7615,910,225
Netherlands → France1,6988,122,827
Poland → Lithuania1,6825,038,317
Hungary → Czechia1,6813,870,493
France → Czechia1,6575,588,965
Hungary → Italy1,5493,574,410
Belgium → Spain1,5447,102,443
Slovakia → Hungary1,5392,211,798
Slovakia → Estonia1,4694,096,796
Austria → Romania1,4464,238,393
Spain → Ireland1,4444,968,619
Italy → Netherlands1,4415,449,511
Austria → Slovakia1,4263,820,230
Bulgaria → Greece1,3303,303,024
Spain → Finland1,3173,245,559
Italy → Ireland1,2902,220,284
Czechia → Bulgaria1,2834,503,421
Spain → Belgium1,1663,230,532
Denmark → Sweden1,1664,927,614
Netherlands → Poland1,1554,554,254
Czechia → Latvia1,1463,969,065
Belgium → Italy1,1206,004,036
Netherlands → Hungary1,0602,410,782

Non-EU partners, 2025

The ten largest non-EU suppliers and customers; arrows from the partner to the EU (imports) or from the EU to the partner (exports), width proportional to the square root of mass.

ImportsExports
Figure 5. EU-27 imports by country of origin – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025 top 10 partners, tonnes
EU-27 imports by country of origin – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025 EU-27 imports from outside the EU in 2025: the 10 largest suppliers account for 93.7% of mass; largest: South Korea 29.3%, China 21.8%, Türkiye 14.6%. Tunisia → EU-27: 4,154 t (EUR 9.29 million; 1.5% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge)Singapore → EU-27: 4,194 t (EUR 7.77 million; 1.6% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge)Mexico → EU-27: 8,621 t (EUR 40.7 million; 3.2% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge)Indonesia → EU-27: 9,453 t (EUR 26.3 million; 3.5% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge)Ukraine → EU-27: 9,530 t (EUR 18.6 million; 3.5% of extra-EU imports)Vietnam → EU-27: 10.8 thousand t (EUR 31.3 million; 4.0% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge)North Macedonia → EU-27: 28.9 thousand t (EUR 65.5 million; 10.7% of extra-EU imports)Türkiye → EU-27: 39.4 thousand t (EUR 93.4 million; 14.6% of extra-EU imports)China → EU-27: 58.8 thousand t (EUR 180 million; 21.8% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge)South Korea → EU-27: 79.1 thousand t (EUR 192 million; 29.3% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) EU-27 EU-27 South Korea → EU-27: 79.1 thousand t (EUR 192 million; 29.3% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) 1. South Korea* · 79.09k t China → EU-27: 58.8 thousand t (EUR 180 million; 21.8% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) 2. China* · 58.81k t Türkiye → EU-27: 39.4 thousand t (EUR 93.4 million; 14.6% of extra-EU imports) 3. Türkiye · 39.37k t North Macedonia → EU-27: 28.9 thousand t (EUR 65.5 million; 10.7% of extra-EU imports) 4. North Macedonia · 28.89k t Vietnam → EU-27: 10.8 thousand t (EUR 31.3 million; 4.0% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) 5. Vietnam* · 10.84k t Ukraine → EU-27: 9,530 t (EUR 18.6 million; 3.5% of extra-EU imports) 6. Ukraine · 9.53k t Indonesia → EU-27: 9,453 t (EUR 26.3 million; 3.5% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) 7. Indonesia* · 9.45k t Mexico → EU-27: 8,621 t (EUR 40.7 million; 3.2% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) 8. Mexico* · 8.62k t Singapore → EU-27: 4,194 t (EUR 7.77 million; 1.6% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) 9. Singapore* · 4.19k t Tunisia → EU-27: 4,154 t (EUR 9.29 million; 1.5% of extra-EU imports) (notional point on the map edge) 10. Tunisia* · 4.15k t
  1. South Korea* · 79.1 thousand t
  2. China* · 58.8 thousand t
  3. Türkiye · 39.4 thousand t
  4. North Macedonia · 28.9 thousand t
  5. Vietnam* · 10.8 thousand t
  6. Ukraine · 9,530 t
  7. Indonesia* · 9,453 t
  8. Mexico* · 8,621 t
  9. Singapore* · 4,194 t
  10. Tunisia* · 4,154 t

Arrow from/to the EU-27 point (notional centre of the EU area); number – rank and mass50.0 thousand t10.0 thousand t2,000 t * country outside the frame – notional point on the map edge in the direction from the EU; arrow direction notional

Source: Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (class CN8 codes, EU-27); compiled by ai-waw.com – products dataset 2.2. Shares and concentration – of extra-EU trade mass (including unspecified partners). Base map: Natural Earth (public domain), Lambert conformal conic projection.
Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (annual data) – latest data: 2025; retrieved: 2026-11-04; next update: 2027-02 (period 2026)

CSV (all years) JSON Metadata Link
Figure data (table)
EU-27 imports by country of origin – Lead-acid starter batteries, 2025
#CountryMass (t)Value (EUR)Share (%)
1South Korea79,089191,967,97229.3
2China58,811180,095,45821.8
3Türkiye39,36593,436,25614.6
4North Macedonia28,89065,501,20210.7
5Vietnam10,84531,274,4884.0
6Ukraine9,53018,607,2573.5
7Indonesia9,45326,273,5233.5
8Mexico8,62140,733,4393.2
9Singapore4,1947,769,7931.6
10Tunisia4,1549,294,8811.5

Non-EU suppliers, 2025

HHI (mass with an identified country) 1,720 · top three 65.6% · partners: 56 · mass with an identified country 100.0%

Non-EU suppliers
CountryMass (t)Share (%)
South Korea79,089 29.3
China58,811 21.8
Türkiye39,365 14.6
North Macedonia28,890 10.7
Vietnam10,845 4.0
Ukraine9,530 3.5
Indonesia9,453 3.5
Mexico8,621 3.2
Singapore4,194 1.6
Tunisia4,154 1.5

Fastest growing, 2020 → 2025

  • North Macedonia 15,824 → 28,890 t (+82.6%)
  • China 33,246 → 58,811 t (+76.9%)
  • Türkiye 22,875 → 39,365 t (+72.1%)
  • South Korea 60,672 → 79,089 t (+30.4%)
  • Tunisia 3,280 → 4,154 t (+26.7%)

Fastest declining, 2020 → 2025

  • United Kingdom 14,372 → 3,420 t (−76.2%)
  • Taiwan 6,301 → 2,195 t (−65.2%)
  • United States 6,927 → 3,279 t (−52.7%)
  • Ukraine 12,018 → 9,530 t (−20.7%)
  • Vietnam 12,737 → 10,845 t (−14.9%)

New partners

  • Singapore 4,194 t

Change for partners with at least 2,116 t in 2020 (threshold: the larger of 100 t and 1% of extra-EU mass); HHI – sum of squared shares (0–10,000).

Non-EU customers, 2025

HHI (mass with an identified country) 822 · top three 44.4% · partners: 150 · mass with an identified country 99.9%

Non-EU customers
CountryMass (t)Share (%)
United States75,705 17.3
United Kingdom73,926 16.9
Türkiye44,826 10.2
South Africa23,991 5.5
Ukraine17,805 4.1
Morocco15,658 3.6
Serbia14,054 3.2
Israel13,759 3.1
Canada12,388 2.8
Switzerland11,236 2.6

Fastest growing, 2020 → 2025

  • Türkiye 15,564 → 44,826 t (+188.0%)
  • Morocco 8,733 → 15,658 t (+79.3%)
  • United States 48,417 → 75,705 t (+56.4%)
  • Ukraine 13,291 → 17,805 t (+34.0%)
  • Mexico 6,390 → 7,971 t (+24.8%)

Fastest declining, 2020 → 2025

  • Russia 35,638 → 0 t (−100.0%)
  • Algeria 9,581 → 486 t (−94.9%)
  • Saudi Arabia 25,344 → 7,840 t (−69.1%)
  • China 9,977 → 5,380 t (−46.1%)
  • South Korea 5,466 → 3,513 t (−35.7%)

New partners

  • Canada 12,388 t
  • Bosnia and Herzegovina 5,711 t
  • Malaysia 4,886 t
  • North Macedonia 4,602 t

Change for partners with at least 4,401 t in 2020 (threshold: the larger of 100 t and 1% of extra-EU mass); HHI – sum of squared shares (0–10,000).

Product chain

Place of the class in the processing chain: unwrought metal, preceding classes, the class, following classes and scrap. Nodes are classes of the dictionary (links); the current class – in the accent colour.

Figure 6. Product chain – Lead-acid starter batteries
Product chain – Lead-acid starter batteries Chain of the class “Lead-acid starter batteries”: preceding classes – Antimonial unwrought lead (PbSb alloys), Other unwrought lead and lead alloys (PbCa, PbSn, bullion lead), Lead oxides (litharge, red lead); following classes – –. Preceding classes Antimonial unwrought lead (PbSb alloys) (CN 7801 91 00) Antimonial unwrought lead (PbSb alloys) CN 7801 91 00 Other unwrought lead and lead alloys (PbCa, PbSn, bullion lead) (CN 7801 99 10, 7801 99 90) Other unwrought lead and lead alloys (PbCa… CN 7801 99 10 + 1 Lead oxides (litharge, red lead) (CN 2824 10 00, 2824 90 00) Lead oxides (litharge, red lead) CN 2824 10 00 + 1 Class Lead-acid starter batteries (CN 8507 10 20, 8507 10 80) Lead-acid starter batteries CN 8507 10 20 + 1 Scrap lead scrap (CN 7802) lead scrap CN 7802

The scheme orders the classes of the dictionary by processing stage (family rules in the portal code: same material, a derived product after the non-derived one; links named explicitly – e.g. cans from can stock, die castings from casting alloys, coated steel from galvanizing alloys, lead sheet and oxides from refined lead, lead-acid batteries from lead alloys and lead oxide); an arrow does not mean deliveries between specific plants. Feed and scrap – CN headings of the metal, not dictionary classes (lead – scrap only: unwrought lead is in the dictionary classes).

CSV (all years) JSON Metadata Link
Figure data (table)
Product chain – Lead-acid starter batteries
NameStageCN
Antimonial unwrought lead (PbSb alloys)Preceding classes 7801 91 00
Other unwrought lead and lead alloys (PbCa, PbSn, bullion lead)Preceding classes 7801 99 10 7801 99 90
Lead oxides (litharge, red lead)Preceding classes 2824 10 00 2824 90 00
Lead-acid starter batteriesClass 8507 10 20 8507 10 80
lead scrapScrap 7802

Figure 7. Map of plants

Map of Europe with plants – Lead-acid starter batteries Plants on the map: 3. Produced – 3 (accent marker), planned production – 0 (hollow marker), production ended – 0 (neutral marker). Mielec – starter battery production, Mielec – AUTOPART S.A. (produced)Chodzież – starter battery production, Chodzież – Jenox Akumulatory Sp. z o.o. (produced)Piastów – starter battery production, Piastów – ZAP Sznajder Batterien S.A. (produced)
produced (3) planned production (0) production ended (0)

Source: ai-waw.com Companies register (entries from primary documents), as of 2026-11-04, version 2.49. plants without coordinates are not on the map. Base map: Natural Earth (public domain). Location of some plants: © OpenStreetMap contributors (ODbL).

CSV (all years) JSON Metadata

Producers

Each entry from a primary document (class A/B/C and document page), with the verification date and the entity controlling the plant (GLEIF Level 2 or company documents).

3
producing plants (incl. outside the EU) of which in the EU-27: 3
3
companies
1
countries
–
non-EU control – plants in the EU-27

Corporate groups (a company without a group counted separately): 3
Non-EU control – plants in the EU-27: 0 of 0 plants with an established controller (3 of 3 producing plants are in the EU-27; plants outside the EU are out of scope of the indicator; ownership control logic and area).
No document states a capacity for this class – no sum is computed.

Compare the first 3 producers

Plant entries: 3.

CSV JSON Metadata

Producers – Lead-acid starter batteries
PlantCompanyGroup StatusAlloysSource VerifiedController
Mielec – starter battery production Mielec, Poland compare AUTOPART S.A. – produced – B Company website – Polish battery maker: Mielec factory, batteries for cars and vans, trucks and buses, tractors and machinery (autopart.pl) not established
Chodzież – starter battery production Chodzież, Poland compare Jenox Akumulatory Sp. z o.o. – produced – B Company website – lead-acid battery maker: batteries for cars and trucks, AGM, EFB and SHD series (jenox-akumulatory.pl) not established
Piastów – starter battery production Piastów, Poland compare ZAP Sznajder Batterien S.A. – produced – B Company website – about us: starter batteries (including AGM, AFB, EFB) for cars, trucks, motorcycles and machinery (zap.pl) not established

Alloys and standards

Materials, product standards and synonyms of this class from the alloy and standard glossary.

The glossary has no materials of this class with a documented basis yet.

Product standards

Synonyms

PL
akumulatory kwasowo-ołowiowe rozruchowe · akumulatory ołowiowe rozruchowe · akumulator rozruchowy · bateria kwasowo-ołowiowa
EN
lead-acid starter batteries · starter battery · lead-acid battery · lead acid battery
DE
Blei-Akkumulatoren von der zum Starten von Kolbenverbrennungsmotoren verwendeten Art (Starterbatterien), mit flüssigem Elektrolyt arbeitend (ausg. ausgebrauchte) (CN label (DE)) · Blei-Akkumulatoren von der zum Starten von Kolbenverbrennungsmotoren verwendeten Art (Starterbatterien), mit nichtflüssigem Elektrolyt arbeitend (ausg. ausgebrauchte) (CN label (DE)) · Blei-Akkumulatoren-Starterbatterien · Starterbatterie · Anlasserakkumulator · Bleiakkumulator · Blei-Säure-Batterie

Full alloy and standard glossary →

Related

Data freshness

Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (annual data)
latest data: 2025 · retrieved: 2026-11-04 · next update: 2027-02 (period 2026) full year 2026 – after the December data release (February 2027); annual data may be revised in later releases
Eurostat, Comext DS-045409 (monthly data)
latest data: 2026-08 (intra-EU: 2026-07) · retrieved: 2026-11-04 · next update: 2026-11-13 (period 2026-09)
Eurostat, PRODCOM DS-059358, DS-059367
latest data: 2025 · retrieved: 2026-11-04 · next update: 2027-07 (period 2026) first release of annual data in mid-July of the following year; revisions – mid-month (ESMS metadata prom_esms, item 8.1)

How to cite

ai-waw.com (2026). Lead-acid starter batteries – product profile: EU-27 trade, PRODCOM production and producers. Products dataset 2.2 (2026-11-04), class revision 1, SHA-256 5e3843e68b64…; https://ai-waw.com/en/products/pb-battery-starter

BibTeX RIS

Dataset edition
2.2 (4 November 2026)
Dataset SHA-256
5e3843e68b648d953493cc5197b2fc55d797056c8187aa9e1cc561e6c9656376
Class revision
1 (4 November 2026) e830fa33c099bae29959ba0e16b59ee96d896706b93e9b3d4e4ada345d8174e0

The citation states the products dataset edition, build date, SHA-256 of the dataset content and the class revision – the same figure may differ in a new edition (Eurostat revisions).

Method note

Entry only from a primary document
A class is assigned to a plant only when a primary document names it – a product data sheet, an annual report, a register or a company page describing the product – with the document page and a reliability class (A, B or C). Press and company directories without a company document are not a basis for an entry.
Assignment from a location document
When a company document describes the product and only a location page points to the plant, the assignment of the product to the plant is an inference – the source then has class C and the entry awaits confirmation by a plant document.
“Full range” is not an entry
A general claim (“full range of copper products”) without the class, dimensions or alloys does not create an entry. A plant without an entry may make the class – the register does not know.
Capacity only from a document
Class capacity (kt) – only when a document states it; no estimates and no split of a whole plant’s capacity into classes. The sum covers only plants with a stated capacity and is a lower bound – always given with the number of plants it covers.
Entry status
Produced, planned production (investment announced in a document), production ended. A closed plant – production ended. Key figures – “produced” only.
Ownership control
The entity controlling the plant and its country – as in Ownership control (GLEIF Level 2, GLEIF exceptions, groups from company documents). The non-EU share is computed only among producers located in the EU-27 with an established controller (as the default area of Ownership control); a plant outside the EU – e.g. in Türkiye, the United Kingdom, Switzerland or Serbia – is out of scope of the indicator, although it counts among plants and countries.
Trade and production
Eurostat Comext: EU-27 extra-EU and intra-EU trade (arrivals reported by EU countries), CN codes of the class (sum of the codes), tonnes and euro, 2005–2025 plus the current incomplete year (hollow marker, no line); sold production – PRODCOM (a code may cover several classes); apparent consumption = production + extra-EU imports − extra-EU exports within the PRODCOM code scope. A CN code may cover products of other classes (e.g. rods and sections in one code) – trade describes CN codes, not the plants of the register.
Metals kept apart
Each class belongs to one metal (aluminium, copper, lead, zinc). Each metal has its own page; the metals share a family layout – five semi-finished product families (wire rod and wire; bars and sections; plate, sheet and strip; foil; tubes), families outside semi-finished products (unwrought alloys – feedstock, powders and dust, chemical compounds, anodes and other articles – currently zinc and lead only; unwrought metal – refined lead) and derived products; split by material within a family. A family without classes of a metal shows “–” with a description in the comparison table. Header figures and trade totals are given separately for each metal – tonnes of different metals are never added up. Derived products (e.g. winding wire, structures, cans, stranded wire, zinc-coated steel, die castings) are marked and are not semi-finished products; tonnes of coated steel are the mass of the product, not of zinc, and tonnes of lead-acid batteries are battery mass, not lead. A class outside the metal trade total (coated steel, zinc oxide, die castings without a CN code, lead oxides, batteries) carries a note with the reason.
Counterpart in the other metal
A copper ↔ aluminium substitution pair (e.g. wire, coiled tubes, strip, stranded wire) comes from the dictionary field or from the portal map of pairs. The comparison shows the figures of both classes side by side, without a total, and the application sentence has no figures; a pair does not mean interchangeability in every application.
Links by metal
Copper classes have a form in the R02 forecast and the EU copper flow analysis; aluminium classes – the EU aluminium flow analysis and the country analyses; zinc classes – the EU zinc flow analysis and the country analysis for Poland; lead classes – the country analysis for Poland (the R01 and R02 forecasts cover copper only). An analysis link given with the class takes precedence.
Dataset scope
The dataset covers copper and aluminium semi-finished products and their alloys, and zinc products (titanium-zinc sheet, unwrought alloys, powders and dust, anodes, derived products) and lead products (refined lead, unwrought alloys, sheet, powders, other articles, lead oxides and lead-acid batteries) at plants of the Companies register. Counts of plants, countries and groups and the capacity sum are a lower bound of the market – they grow with further documents.

Pages and Markdown are open to text and data mining with attribution; JSON data – like the other JSON data of the register – are reserved as a database compilation. Trade data: Eurostat (reuse with attribution).

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